Пиролизная установка утилизации | переработка шин, покрышек, пластмасс

Пиролизная установка «Пиротекс» —  оборудование, работающее с использованием метода закрытого пиролиза, предназначенное для переработки и утилизации резиносодержащих и полимеросодержащих отходов, нефтешламов и отработанных масел. В отличие от установок открытого пиролиза, при утилизации РТИ и отработанных покрышек  в установке закрытого пиролиза на выходе получается больший объем жидкого топлива.

Установка пиролиза «Пиротекс» обладает повышенной экологичностью — абсолютный минимум выбросов. Оборудование максимально автоматизировано, что позволило свести человеческий труд к элементарным операциям — загрузить и выгрузить тигль из печи.

Утилизация шин в пиролизной установке «Пиротекс» позволяет получить продукты переработки более высокого качества. Мини завод для переработки покрышек также используется как оборудование для переработки пластмасс, нефтешламов и отработанных масел.

Схема размещения пиролизной установки «Пиротекс»

Пиролизная установка «Пиротекс» может служить как основным и единственным оборудованием, так и частью линии переработки, если стоит цель организовать:

• завод по  переработке и утилизации использованных автомобильных шин, покрышек, отходов резины
• бизнес по  переработке отходов РТИ, пластмасс, пластиковых бутылок, ПЭТ, полиэтилена
• предприятие, производящее  переработку отработанного масла, нефтешламов

 

Получаемые продукты пиролиза можно использовать следующим образом:

Наименование продукта	Назначение продукции
Пиролизное жидкое топливо	Применяется в качестве жидкого топлива для котлоагрегатов, заменитель печного топлива. Применима разгонка на фракции с целью получения различных нефтепродуктов (бензин, дизельное топливо, масло, смолы и др.)
Углеродосодержащий твердый остаток	Применяется в качестве твердого топлива, а также возможно использование для приготовления модифицированного жидкого топлива, в качестве сорбента, заменителя активированного угля, в качестве наполнителя при изготовлении новых резинотехнических изделий неответственного назначения, красителя для лакокрасочного, цементного и других производств, а также как наполнитель резино-битумных мастик и как утилизатор ртутносодержащих веществ (в лампах и пр.).
Пиролизный газ	Используется полностью для работы пиролизной установки.
Металлолом (металлокорд)	Имеет в своем составе высококачественную сталь. Применяется для последующей переработки в металл.

Информационное видео об установке пиролиза «Пиротекс»

 

 

Дополнительные материалы на сайте о установке утилизации «Пиротекс»:

 

Блок пиролиза: Характеристики Величина Производительность блока пиролиза (Примечание 1) от 50 до 1000 кг в час (от 1 до 25 тонн в день) Подача сырья Постоянная или периодическая (1 раз в 10-12 часов) Напряжение сети переменного тока, В 3 фазы, 380±10% (Примечание 2) Частота питающего напряжения, Гц 50/60 Потребляемая мощность основного технологического оборудования, кВт на каждые 2,5 тонны в день до 20 Среднемассовая температура в реакторе пиролиза, °С до 650 Среднемассовая температура в топочной камере, °С до 750 Охлаждение системы конденсации топлива Водяное, замкнутое (Примечание 3) Диапазон рабочей температуры окружающей среды, °С от — 60 до + 50 Габаритные размеры, Д×Ш×В, м соответствуют размерам морских контейнеров в 20/30/40 футов Количество контейнеров от 1 до 2 и более (Примечание 4) Суммарная масса блока, тонн от 8 до 40 (в зависимости от производительности) Режим работы (Коэффициент рабочего цикла) Продолжительный, непрерывный (ПВ=100%) Блок ректификации: Характеристики Величина Производительность блока ректификации (Примечание 1) от 50 до 1000 литров в час (от 1 до 25 тонн в день) Подача сырья Постоянная или периодическая (1 раз в 10-12 часов) Напряжение сети переменного тока, В 3 фазы, 380±10% (Примечание 2) Частота питающего напряжения, Гц 50/60 Потребляемая мощность основного технологического оборудования, кВт на каждые 2 тонны в день до 5 Рабочая температура в колонне ректификации, °С до 380 Среднемассовая температура в реакторе пиролиза, °С до 560 Среднемассовая температура в топочной камере, °С до 680 Охлаждение системы конденсации топлива Водяное, замкнутое (Примечание 3) Диапазон рабочей температуры окружающей среды, °С от — 60 до + 50 Габаритные размеры, Д×Ш×В, м соответствуют размерам морских контейнеров в 20/30/40 футов Количество контейнеров от 1 до 2 и более (Примечание 4) Суммарная масса блока, тонн от 6 до 30 (в зависимости от производительности) Режим работы (Коэффициент рабочего цикла) Продолжительный (ПВ=100%) или периодичный (ПВ=100% в 2 смены) Блок плазменного крекинга: Характеристики Величина Производительность блока плазменного крекинга (Примечание 1) от 50 до 1000 кг в час (от 1 до 25 тонн в день) Подача сырья Постоянная / непрерывная Напряжение сети переменного тока, В 3 фазы, 380±10% (Примечание 2) Частота питающего напряжения, Гц 50/60 Потребляемая мощность основного технологического оборудования, кВт соответствует 10% от мощности плазменной системы Мощность плазменной системы, кВт от 50 и более (в зависимости от производительности блока) Рабочая температура в пятне контакта плазменной струи и перерабатываемого сырья, °С 1000-1200 Охлаждение системы конденсации топлива Водяное, замкнутое (Примечание 3) Диапазон рабочей температуры окружающей среды, °С от — 60 до + 50 Габаритные размеры, Д×Ш×В, м соответствуют размерам морских контейнеров в 20/30/40 футов Количество контейнеров от 1 до 2 и более (Примечание 4) Суммарная масса блока, тонн от 5 до 30 (в зависимости от производительности) Режим работы (Коэффициент рабочего цикла) Продолжительный, постоянный (ПВ=100%) Блок хранения топлива: Характеристики Величина Объем топлива для хранения и обмена между блоками пиролиза, ректификации и плазменного крекинга (Примечание 1) соответствует двойной производительности блоков пиролиза, ректификации и плазменного крекинга Виды сохраняемого топлива жидкое синтетическое топливо, тяжелая углеводородная фракция, бензиновая и дизельная фракции Напряжение сети переменного тока, В 3 фазы, 380±10% (Примечание 2) Частота питающего напряжения, Гц 50/60 Потребляемая мощность основного технологического оборудования, кВт 2 Диапазон рабочей температуры окружающей среды, °С от — 60 до + 50 Габаритные размеры, Д×Ш×В, м соответствуют размерам морских контейнеров в 20/30/40 футов Количество контейнеров от 1 до 2 и более (Примечание 4) Суммарная масса блока, тонн от 3 до 40 (в зависимости от производительности) Режим работы (Коэффициент рабочего цикла) Продолжительный, постоянный (ПВ=100%) Примечания: 1 — Возможно изготовление по заказу установок для плазменного пиролиза производительностью до 80 тонн в день (HGP-3000) и до 100 тонн в день (HGP-5000). 2 — Источник питания обеспечивает автоматическую адаптацию к любому входному напряжению в диапазоне 380–450 В для трех фаз. 3 — Выбор охлаждения зависит от технического задания на разработку установки плазменного пиролиза. 4 — Установка базируется в стандартных 20/30/40 футовых контейнерах, количество контейнеров от 1 до 6 и более (зависит от требуемых параметров уничтожения, количества и производительности основных блоков, типа отходов и ТЗ заказчика). 5 — Все параметры установки плазменного пиролиза изготавливаются в соответствии с ТЗ заказчика.

90000 What is pyrolysis process? 90001 90002 90003 A new way to bring value to materials 90004 90005 90002 Pyrolysis is a thermochemical treatment, which can be applied to any organic (carbon-based) product. It can be done on pure products as well as mixtures. In this treatment, material is exposed to high temperature, and 90007 in the absence of oxygen 90008 goes through chemical and physical separation into different molecules. The decomposition takes place thanks to the limited thermal stability of chemical bonds of materials, which allows them to be disintegrated by using the heat.90005 90002 Thermal decomposition leads to the formation of new molecules. This allows to receive products with a different, often more superior character than original residue. Thanks to this feature, pyrolysis becomes increasingly important process for today industry — as it allows to bring far greater value to common materials and waste. 90005 90002 Pyrolysis is frequently associated with thermal treatment. But in contrary to combustion and gasifications processes, which involve entire or partial oxidation of material, pyrolysis bases on heating in the absence of air.This makes it mostly endothermic process that ensure high energy content in the products received. 90005 90002 Pyrolysis products always produce solid (charcoal, biochar), liquid and non-condensable gases (h3, Ch5, CnHm, CO, CO2 and N). As the liquid phase is extracted from pyrolysis gas only during it’s cooling down, in some applications, these two streams can be used together when providing hot syngas directly to the burner or oxidation chamber (see «Directions of hot syngas utilisation»).90005 90002 During the pyrolysis, a particle of material is heated up from the ambient to defined temperature (setup temperature of Biogreen® equipment). The material remains inside the pyrolysis unit and is transported by screw conveyor at defined speed, until the completion of the process. Chosen temperature of pyrolysis defines the composition and yields of products (pyrolysis oil, syngas and char). 90005 90002 90005 90020 What influences pyrolysis process results? 90021 90002 Comments are closed.90005.90000 China New Design Small Pyrolysis Unit 90001 90002 China New Design Small Pyrolysis Unit 90003 90004 90005 90004 90005 90004 Product Information 90005 90010 90011 90012 90013 Iteams 90014 90013 Diesel (after distillation) 90014 90013 Mixed Oil, Pyrolysis Oil 90014 90013 GB 0 # Diesel 90014 90021 90012 90013 Oxidationn Stability 90014 90013 2.0 90014 90013 1.5 90014 90013 2.5 90014 90021 90012 90013 Volume% 90014 90013 0.005 90014 90013 0.005 90014 90013 0.05 90014 90021 90012 90013 Steam Residual Carbon Residue% 90014 90013 0.25 90014 90013 0.25 90014 90013 0.3 90014 90021 90012 90013 Ashes% 90014 90013 0.008 90014 90013 0.1 90014 90013 0.01 90014 90021 90012 90013 Copper Corrosion / Level 90014 90013 1.1 90014 90013 1.1 90014 90013 1 90014 90021 90012 90013 Water% 90014 90013 Traces 90014 90013 1 90014 90013 Traces 90014 90021 90012 90013 Mechanical Impurities 90014 90013 No 90014 90013 No 90014 90013 No 90014 90021 90012 90013 Density 90014 90013 0.85 90014 90013 0.88 90014 90013 0.83-0.87 90014 90021 90012 90013 Freezing Point / ° C 90014 90013 -10 90014 90013 -5 90014 90013 0 90014 90021 90012 90013 Flash Point (closed) / ° C 90014 90013 45 90014 90013 40 90014 90013 55 90014 90021 90012 90013 Kinematic Viscosity 90014 90013 2.5 90014 90013 5.0 90014 90013 3.0-8.0 90014 90021 90012 90013 Combustion Value 90014 90013 9500 90014 90013 10000 90014 90013 8500 90014 90021 90012 90013 Color 90014 90013 1.2 90014 90013 4.5 90014 90013 ≤3.5 90014 90021 90012 90013 Cetane Number 90014 90013 43 90014 90013 38 90014 90013 46 90014 90021 90162 90163 90004 90005 90004 90005 90004 90005 90004 90005 90004 90005 90004 90005 90004 90005 90004 90005 90004 90005 90004 90005 90004 90005 90004 90005 90004 90189 2.Pre-sales: 90190 90005 90004 90005 90004 For customer to understand our product in the round more expediently, we provide online, telephone, email, mobile phone App etc.all-around consult ways for customer to choose, and we provide professional and productive real-time solution aiming at customers ‘question. 90005 90004 90005 90004 According customers ‘different demands, Ruixin engineers provide customized service such as product standard, technological production norm and professional project planning and so on. Saving cost, improving performance for customer and satisfying needs of customers adequately. 90005 90004 90005 90004 90189 3.In-sale Service: 90190 90005 90004 90005 90004 Ruixin New Energy and Technology Development Co., Ltd promises customers that the product will be made in the most advanced technology and use the better materials to meet the requirements of the quality, specifications, performance of the contract and guarantee the product provided in the period of validity has satisfactory performance. 90005 90004 90005 90004 We will regulate equipment production progress for our customers and timely and effectively communicate with customers to guarantee delivery within the stipulated time. 90005 90004 90005 90004 After the completion of the production equipment, the personnel of quality inspection will control the quality strictly and will do the inspection before the goods will be sent.90005 90004 90005 90004 If the inspection can not meet the requirement, the goods would not be sent. 90005 90004 90005 90004 90189 4.After-sales: 90190 90005 90004 90005 90004 Within 24 hours after installation and debugging is completed we will pay a return visit by the telephone about the degree of satisfaction of the service to rebuild the comprehensive maintenance and service records file. 90005 90004 90005 90004 If the customers found the problems during the use, we would offered the timely, positive feedback and sufficient technical support.90005 90004 90005 90004 Ruixin New Energy and Technology Development Co., Ltd will offer the maintenance that is not on a regular basis. The product warranty lasts for one year. 90005 90004 90005 90004 During the warranty, we will be responsible for the fault caused by the design, technology and materials: If the product would be unavailable caused by the quality, we would be free for the replacement and the installation. 90005 90004 90005 90004 90005 90004 90005 .90000 Fully Continuous Pyrolysis Unit — Buy Fully Continuous Pyrolysis Unit, Continuous Pyrolysis Unit, Pyrolysis Unit Product on Alibaba.com 90001 90002 Fully continuous pyrolysis unit 90003 90004 Fuel oil: 40% 90003 90004 Wire: 15% 90003 90004 Thick Carbon Black: 35% 90003 90004 Non-condensable gas: 8% 90003 90004 Loss: 2% 90003 90004 90003 90004 90017 Fully continuous pyrolysis unit (XF / V-15) 90018 90003 90004 90003 90004 This kind of equipment adopted automatic feeding, automatic deslagging, the materials in the reactor, screw driving from the low temperature area to high temperature area and pyrolysis, high automatic, big capacity, high safety.Sloved many shortcoming of the fixed bed type and othe types pyrolysis equipments, quantity production, low capacity, long cycle, big consumption, heavy physical labour, bad working environment.In the meanwhile, solved the rotary kiln’s problem, many sealed point, potential safety and air pollution because of it is easy leakage of oil-oulet and hole of material discharging. Full automatic atmospheric pressure waste tyre pyrolysis equipment adopted original inner screw propeller, not only ensure the materials heating uniformly, pyrolysis fully, but also ensure the pyrolysis gas and carbon black powder separated fully, incomparable advantage with the rotary kiln pyrolysis machine which the pyrolysis gas mixed with carbon and no separated space, easy to bring vast carbon black powder and block the tubes, equipment and pollute the quality of oil.90003 90004 90003 90004 90003 90004 90003 90004 90003 90004 90003 90004 90003 90004 90003 90004 90003 90004 In addition, we can produce tyre oil distillation machine, carbon black ash removal machine, etc. 90003 90004 If you need more information, pls feel free to contact us, welcome to visit our factory and check the running machine. 90003 90004 90003 90004 90003 .90000 Catalytic Pyrolysis of Biomass | IntechOpen 90001 90002 Depending on the biomass type used, the low calorific value, high water content, high viscosity (due to large molecules), high oxygen content (due to oxygenated hydrocarbon content) as well as instability, immiscibility with other fossil fuels make bio -oil difficult to use directly as a fuel without upgrading [24, 55]. In order to upgrade bio-oil to use in fuel applications, two different methods have been utilized: hydrodeoxygenation and catalytic cracking.In hydrodeoxygenation, bio-oil compounds react with hydrogen under high pressure and moderate temperature to produce hydrocarbon compounds and water. Catalytic cracking is used to upgrade bio-oil through a catalytic medium, removing oxygen from bio-oil compounds in the form of H 90003 2 90004 O and CO 90003 2 90004, involving the chemical reactions of rupturing the C-C bonds via dehydration, decarboxylation, and decarbonylation [1, 16, 24, 55]. Catalytic cracking has several advantages over hydrodeoxygenation including operating at atmospheric pressure and in an environment with no need of extra hydrogen supply [1].90007 90008 3.1. System configurations for catalysts used in biomass pyrolysis 90009 90002 There are two methods for catalytic pyrolysis in use: catalytic bed and catalyst mixing. In catalytic bed method, which is also referred to as «90011 in-situ 90012» upgrading or ex-bed method, pyrolytic vapors coming from the first reactor pass through a catalytic reactor which is called catalytic bed, resulting bio-oil, char, and gaseous products. In catalyst mixing (in-bed) method, however, biomass and catalyst samples are mixed physically before being inserted in pyrolysis reactor [1, 30, 37].90007 90014 3.1.1. Catalyst bed method (90011 in situ 90012) 90017 90002 Catalyst bed method, also called 90011 in-situ 90012 pyrolysis, involves catalytic upgrading subsequent to thermal conversion of biomass resulting pyrolysis vapors [1]. In general, 90011 in-situ 90012 catalytic pyrolysis of biomass can be performed using different reactor configurations: single stage and two stage reactor configurations. Single stage pyrolysis involves catalytic pyrolysis of biomass in the same reactor with catalyst, whereas two-stage configuration involves fixed bed / fluidized bed reactor followed by a fixed bed catalytic reactor.The former produces more coke than the latter [33]. A study by Mante and Agblevor [33] using two stage reactor configuration for catalytic pyrolysis of hybrid poplar wood with HZSM-5 reported low yield of coke with 3.8% of value which was relative to the weight of biomass. Advantage is that catalytic pyrolysis of evolved vapors from biomass can be operated at a different temperature than that of the main pyrolysis reactor in case of two stage reactor configuration is employed [18]. However, compared to catalyst mixing, the catalyst bed method also leads to high amount of char resulting clogging of catalyst pores, which prevents the diffusion of vapors through the pores [1].90007 90002 In a study of Thangalazhy-Gopakumar et al., It was noted that some noncatalytic bio-oil compounds were detected when using catalyst bed method, suggesting that primary tar compounds were converted into secondary and tertiary tar compounds before reaching the catalyst bed to be cracking into aromatics [1]. Uzun and Sarıoğlu reported that using catalyst bed method with several types of catalysts decreased the liquid yield compared to catalyst mixing method [39]. Iliopoulou et al. studied catalytic pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass and explained the 90011 in-situ 90012 effect of metal modified ZSM-5 with various percentages.It was suggested that transition metals favored the formation of hydrogen, which leads to hydrocarbon reactions on the zeolite acid sites via catalyst bed mode [31]. 90007 90014 3.1.2. Catalyst mixing method (in-bed) 90017 90002 Catalyst mixing method can be done by either addition of catalyst to biomass with defined amounts or by wet impregnation of biomass. Due to better physical surface contact between biomass and catalyst in pyrolysis reactor, mixing allows immediate interaction of evolved pyrolysis vapors with the catalyst suggesting that evolved vapors can be adsorbed on the catalyst surface to be diffused into the pores for catalytic cracking [1, 39] .Disadvantage is that the catalytic conditions are irreversible so that biomass and catalyst should be operated under the same conditions [18]. 90007 90002 Aromatic content of bio-oil is of utmost importance, and utilizing catalysts is one alternative way to increase aromatization reactions (thus enhance bio-oil quality). Studies have shown that catalytic mixing method provides better mass transfer for cracking of bio-oil compounds in terms of aromatization and deoxygenation [1, 39]. 90007 90002 Thangalazhy-Gopakumar et al.investigated the catalytic effect of ZSM-5 zeolite in pyrolysis of pine wood chips under helium environment. It was revealed that using catalyst mixing method with 1: 9 biomass to catalyst ratio gave 41.5% of aromatic yield compared to that of 9.8% using catalyst bed method with 1: 5 biomass to catalyst ratio. In this study, the absence of guaiacol compounds in bio-oil shows that catalyst mixing is an effective method for cracking of lignin-derived compounds to aromatics [1]. Pütün et al. studied pyrolysis of cotton seed with the addition of MgO with defined proportions to the biomass samples.Compared to conventional pyrolysis results, aromatic and aliphatic content was enhanced to the values ​​of 35 and 23%, and the oxygen content was reduced from 9.56 to 4.90% [37]. The results of rice husk pyrolysis with ZnO studied by Zhou et al. showed that catalyst mixing with various amounts significantly improved bio-oil quality in terms of hydrogen content, H / C ratio, higher heating value, and reducing carboxylic acid content of bio-oil [17]. Thus, in order to design large-scale pyrolysis plants, effective and homogenous mixing systems are necessary.90007 90008 3.2. Metal oxide catalysts 90009 90002 Metal oxide catalysts have been extensively studied in literature, using miscellaneous biomass species, with regard to their effect on the quality and quantity of pyrolysis products. It is a known fact that metal oxides, as any catalysts, influence the decomposition temperature. Accordingly, in a thermogravimetric study conducted by Chattopadhyay et al. using Cu / Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004 as a catalyst, it was noted that transition metal supported alumina had a strong effect on decreasing the devolatilization temperature of volatiles [15].Zabeti et al. applied amorphous silica alumina (ASA) supported with alkali or alkaline earth metals in pyrolysis of pinewood. Maximum bio-oil was obtained with nonsupported amorphous silica alumina with the value of 42.4 wt.%. However, the fraction with Cs / ASA showed the best performance in terms of oxygen elimination in aromatic hydrocarbons thus increasing the heating value of bio-oil [20]. Wang et al. [68] investigated the catalytic effect on pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass using catalysts including NiMo / Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004, CoMo / Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004, CoMo-S / Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004, activated alumina, and porous silica.In order to enhance the production of pyrolysis intermediates (benzene, toluene, xylene, naphthalene), it was suggested that CoMo-S / Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004 was most favorable among all. However, NiMo / Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004 gave highest yield of CH 90003 4 90004 with the value of 51.82%. Shadangi and Mohanty [69] studied CaO and Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004 in pyrolysis of 90011 Hyoscyamus niger L. 90012 and confirmed that, consistent with other studies mentioned above, adding catalysts to pyrolysis process considerably decreased the bio-oil yield, however, eliminated the oxygenated groups present in bio-oil thus improving its fuel quality.Aysu and Küçük investigated the pyrolysis of eastern giant fennel (90011 Ferula orientalis L. 90012) comparing the effect of ZnO and Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004 catalysts [35]. Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004, with the value of 79.94%, was found to be more effective than ZnO in terms of conversion of biomass. However, the effect of the catalyst on the bio-oil yield was different from each other. ZnO increased the bio-oil yield with increasing catalyst to biomass ratio, whereas bio-oil yield decreased with increasing Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004 addition.This indicated that Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004 promoted gas formation. In a study of Yorgun and Şimşek, activated alumina was used in pyrolysis of 90011 Miscanthus 90012 × 90011 giganteus 90012, and it was noted that at high heating rates, 60 wt.% Of catalyst loading to biomass is effective for maximum liquid production with the value of 51 wt.%. The oxygen content of bio-oil was found to be higher than that of noncatalytic bio-oil [70]. Nguyen et al. investigated the pyrolysis vapors of pine wood chips over 20 wt.% Na 90003 2 90004 CO 90003 3 90004 / γ-Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004. It was reported that liquid yield was lowered but decarboxylation of carboxylic acids was favored with the catalyst, resulting a pH value of 6.5 suggesting that the sodium-based alumina catalyst is effective on improving acidity of bio-oil. Hydrocarbon concentration was increased from 0.5 to 17.5% indicating a higher energy density of bio-oil [36]. Chen et al. presented the gaseous product distribution of biomass (rice straw and saw dust) pyrolysis, at a temperature of 800 ° C, utilizing different metal oxides such as Cr 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004, MnO, FeO, Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004, CaO, and CuO.It was noted that except for CuO and Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004, all the catalysts noticeably improved gas production [56]. Zhou et al. [17] studied the pyrolysis of rice husk with the addition of ZnO. The results of this study indicated that ZnO showed a trend to decrease bio-oil yield with increasing biomass to catalyst ratio. However, ZnO improved the bio-oil compositional quality in terms of low-molecular-weight compounds including alkanes, alkenes, styrene, and alkyl phenols (thus increasing bio-oil stability).Nokkosmaki et al. also studied the same catalyst for the conversion of pyrolysis vapors of pine sawdust and the viscosity of catalytic bio-oil was shown to be reduced by 40% compared to noncatalytic pyrolysis results [34]. Pütün et al. [37] revealed that utilizing MgO as a catalyst in cotton seed pyrolysis in a fixed bed reactor improved the bio-oil quality by removing oxygenated compounds, enhancing higher heating value, and increasing aromatic content of bio-oil. 90007 90008 3.3. Zeolite catalysts 90009 90002 Zeolites, having a tetrahedral structure and acidic nature, are three-dimensional aluminosilicates linked through oxygen atoms and supported with channels and cavities, resulting porous structure of exceptional catalytic activity.Each type of these tetrahedral zeolites with overall charge balance of minus one have Si or Al at the center and oxygen atoms at the corners of the structure [71]. 90007 90002 Zeolites possess following characteristics: (1) cracking of deoxygenated compounds via shape selectivity, (2) high surface area, (3) varied dimensions of channels and pores, and (4) high adsorption capacity [22, 72]. The physical properties of zeolites depend on the synthesis conditions including temperature, gel precursors, structure-directing agent [73].The pore size and framework of zeolites tend to affect the product composition via several reactions restricting formation of hydrocarbons larger than that of pore size of zeolites. This is called shape selectivity and is one of the most important factors differentiating zeolites from other type of catalysts. Selectivity is based on whether the aromatics derived from pyrolysis vapors can enter, form in, and diffuse out of the pores of the zeolite [22, 23]. Shape selectivity of zeolites is elaborately discussed in Section 3.3.1.1 demonstrating ZSM-5 as a zeolite type. 90007 90002 The main reason why zeolites are commonly used in biomass pyrolysis is that their varied acidity and shape-selectivity provide advantage over silica-alumina catalysts of amorphous structure, in terms of aromatization reactions. Acidity depends on the Si / Al ratio of zeolite structure and can be caused by Brønsted and Lewis acid sites [22]. Acidity affects the catalytic reactions by providing enhanced cracking activity with decreasing Si / Al ratio [23].Hence, the distribution of acid sites in the pores of zeolites is of high importance in terms of preventing coke-forming reactions in internal pores of zeolite. Low of Si / Al ratio causes higher amounts of acid sites with close proximity. Due to this reason, coke-forming reactions, which convert aromatic hydrocarbons into coke compounds, will increase. Therefore, an optimum acidity is required for zeolites if it is used in biomass pyrolysis [19]. 90007 90002 Aside from the distribution of acid sites, the pore structure of the individual zeolite plays an important role for selectivity of products and in terms of aromatic content of bio-oil.The pores of zeolites are characterized by the size of the ring defining the pore, that is, the n-number of the ring, which is referred to as the number of Si or Al atoms in the ring [74]. Hydrocarbon chain length of pyrolysis products, thus the size distribution of aromatic compounds, depends on the zeolite pore size and internal pore surface area. In general, larger pores and surface area lead to long chain-structured hydrocarbons. Microporous surface area of ​​the catalyst determines the yield of gaseous products of pyrolysis, whereas macroporous area determines the liquid yield [24, 37].A range of zeolites with different pore sizes has been studied in literature [39, 75, 76]. Y zeolite (faujasite), having a cubic structure with a pore system composed of 12-membered circular ring channels, has the largest average pore size (7.4 Å) and internal pore space (11.24 Å) [22, 23]. Such relatively large pore size affects the catalyzed reactions resulting less contact between pore surface and pyrolysis vapors, thereby leading to less cracking of biomass-derived oxygenates. Also, straight channels with larger pore size do not provide shape selectivity compared to other zeolites, which have smaller and sinusoidal channels that enable shape selectivity [23].Despite having large pore size [73], beta zeolite is of tetragonal crystal structure and has 12-membered straight channels crossed with 10-membered ring channels, which makes it more effective for production of aromatic hydrocarbons than Y-zeolites [23]. Ferrierite, as a medium pore size zeolite, has orthorhombic structure with 8 and 10 membered channels with internal pore space 6.31 Å [23, 73]. 90007 90002 Due to having two parallel channels connected with 12-membered rings and 8-membered rings, Mordenite is classified as a large pore-sized zeolite and have orthorhombic structure [22, 23, 73].ZSM-5, consisting of an MFI orthorhombic structure, is composed of 10-membered straight channels connected by 10-membered sinusoidal channels [71]. General physicochemical properties of zeolites are presented in Table 2. 90007 90126 90127 90127 90127 90127 90127 90127 90133 90134 90135 Catalyst 90136 90135 ZSM-5 90136 90135 Mordenite 90136 90135 Beta zeolite 90136 90135 Y zeolite 90136 90135 Ferrierite 90136 90147 90148 90149 90134 90151 IZA code 90152 90151 MFI 90152 90151 MOR 90152 90151 BEA 90152 90151 FAU 90152 90151 FER 90152 90147 90134 90151 Pore dimension 90152 90151 3 90152 90151 2 90152 90151 3 90152 90151 3 90152 90151 2 90152 90147 90134 90151 Channel system 90152 90151 10-10 90152 90151 12 -8 90152 90151 12-12 90152 90151 12-12 90152 90151 8-10 90152 90147 90134 90193 Pore size (Å) 90152 90151 5.1 × 5.5 90152 90151 7.0 × 6.5 90152 90151 7.6 × 6.4 90152 90151 7.4 × 7.4 90152 90151 4.2 × 5.4 90152 90147 90134 90151 5.3 × 5.6 90152 90151 5.7 × 2.6 90152 90151 5.6 × 5.6 90152 90213 90151 3.5 × 4.8 90152 90147 90134 90151 Internal pore space (Å) 90152 90151 5.2-5.5 90152 90151 4.2-6.7 90152 90151 6.1-6.68 90152 90151 11.24 90152 90151 6.31 90152 90147 90134 90151 BET surface area (m 90233 2 90234 / g) 90152 90151 395.5 90152 90151 558.7 90152 90151 643.1 90152 90151 809.1 90152 90151 * 90152 90147 90247 90248 90008 Table 2. 90009 90002 Physicochemical properties of zeolites most commonly used [22, 72, 76, 77]. 90007 90002 * Information not available. 90007 90255 90002 Zeolites with medium and large pore size facilitate faster reactant diffusion compared to zeolites with smaller pore size, thus yielding more aromatics in liquid fraction of pyrolysis product. However, large-pore size zeolites produce less aromatic than medium-pore size zeolites because large pores promote coke formation [22].Accordingly, a recent study confirmed that ZSM-5 of medium pore size and medium internal pore surface area favors higher aromatics production and lower coke yield [19]. 90007 90014 3.3.1. ZSM-5 zeolite 90017 90002 ZSM-5, as one of the most common used zeolites in biomass pyrolysis [23], consists of pentasil units and has orthorhombic structure [74]. Being composed of 10-membered straight channels connected by 10-membered sinusoidal channels enables ZSM-5 to have significantly more cracking activity than the other zeolites [23, 27].ZSM-5 has been widely used as catalyst in petroleum industry due to its shape selectivity, exceptional pore size with steric hindrance, thermal stability, and solid acidity [78]. 90007 90002 Compared to other zeolites, medium-scaled pore size of ZSM-5 makes it difficult for larger aromatic coke precursors to form inside the pores [79]. Studies have shown that, regardless of feedstock, utilizing ZSM-5 in biomass pyrolysis reduces the oxygenated compound content in bio-oil and simultaneously increases aromatic species [80-84].Deoxygenation of oxygenated organic compounds occurs inside the ZSM-5 zeolite pores via reactions such as dehydration, decarboxylation, and decarbonylation [27, 31, 32]. At lower temperatures, oxygen is found to be removed in the form of H 90003 2 90004 O, whereas in case of higher temperatures, CO and CO 90003 2 90004 are the main products of oxygen removal [31]. Oxygen removal, primarily in the form of CO and CO 90003 2 90004, is more preferable as it leads to less carbon deposition on the zeolite and more hydrogen formation and consequently less water content in bio-oil [31].90007 90014 3.3.1.1. Shape selectivity of ZSM-5 90017 90002 The phenomenon of shape selectivity can be explained by the combined effect of molecular sieve and catalytic reaction that occurs at the external and internal acidic sites of zeolites [85]. ZSM-5, having porous structure, can be used for shape-selective catalysis providing that not only the pore size but also dimensions of reacting and diffusing molecules are similar to zeolite pores [19]. Thus, the effect of pore size and steric hindrance of ZSM-5 on the catalytic reactions must be investigated if zeolites with better performance are to be designed for biomass conversion [73].90007 90002 The formation of pyrolysis products with shape selective catalysis depends on two types of selectivity: (1) reactant and product selectivity and (2) transition state selectivity, which are described with their mass transfer effects and intrinsic chemical effects, respectively [22, 73, 85]. The main idea behind reactant and product selectivity lies behind the fact of hindered diffusion of reactants and products inside zeolite pores. Specific pore size of ZSM-5 affects the diffusion of reactants inside the pores excluding the ones with dimensions larger than the pore openings of ZSM-5, thereby preventing them from reaching the catalytic active sites and consequently allowing catalytic decomposition only at the external active sites [73, 85].Due to pore geometry of ZSM-5, formation of certain products is restricted affecting the chemical reaction and thus causing selectively homogenization of pyrolysis products [85]. 90007 90002 Selectivity of ZSM-5 has been extensively studied, and it is more commonly found to cause selectivity over aromatic compounds [49]. Mihalcik et al. [23] studied different zeolites for the conversion of several types of biomass and biomass components. According the results of this study, ZSM-5 was found to promote the formation of 90011 p 90012 -xylene in abundance for every case of biomass pyrolysis.In a study of Foster et al. [19], HZSM-5 for furan conversion showed a tendency for aromatic selectivity giving higher yield of aromatics as naphthalene having the highest percentage of 30.4% of overall aromatic species. Fogassy et al. [86], investigating the shape selectivity of zeolites for lignin fragments, revealed that majority of the phenolic compounds derived from lignin decomposition are too large to enter through zeolite pores, therefore, the conversion of these compounds occurs at the external active sites.As Yu et al. [22] suggested, however, at higher temperatures effective pore size of ZSM-5 increases, enabling bigger molecules than that of ZSM-5 pore size to reach the internal catalytic active sites. Jae et al. investigated the role of pore size of several types of zeolites in glucose pyrolysis (using kinetic diameters for products and reactants as affecting parameters) to determine whether the catalytic reaction occurs inside the pores or at the external surface [73]. Kinetic diameter was estimated from the properties at the critical point.It was revealed that ZSM-5 allowed pyrolysis intermediates and products (such as benzene, toluene, indene, ethylbenzene, 90011 p 90012 -xylenes) to diffuse into pores due to their significantly small kinetic diameters than that of ZSM-5 pore size. 90007 90002 As temperature increases to 600 ° C, due to thermal distortion, compounds like naphthalene which gave the highest yield in aromatics are likely to be formed inside the pores as well as on the surface. According to this study, it was concluded that, in addition to pore size, internal pore space of ZSM-5 affects the catalytic reaction.This suggests that biomass conversion with ZSM-5 is affected from mass transfer limitations as well as transition state effects [73]. 90007 90014 3.3.1.2. Acidity of ZSM-5 90017 90002 Aside from the shape selectivity, the acidity of ZSM-5 plays an important role for the conversion of oxygenates into aromatics. It is generally accepted that Brønsted acid sites are the active sites that converts oxygenated compounds into aromatics rather than Lewis acid sites. Cracking of large oxygenated occurs at the acid sites of external surface of ZSM-5, whereas conversion of smaller ones into aromatics takes place at the acid sites inside the pores [22, 87].Therefore, the abundance of both external and internal acid sites must be investigated in order to design a better process for aromatics formation. As explained by Van Santen, Brønsted acid sites are generated as a result of replacement of silica, which has a valency of four, by a metal atom, most commonly aluminum with a valency of three [88]. Thus, this makes Brønsted acid sites proton donors. Si and Al are connected with a proton-attached oxygen atom, which leads to a chemically more stable structure [88, 89].On the other hand, Lewis acid sites are electron pair acceptors, and the nature of these sites is related to aluminum atoms positioned in the framework [89, 90]. 90007 90002 In addition to nature of the acid sites, the molar ratio between SiO 90003 2 90004 and Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004 in zeolite framework also influences the reactivity and performance of ZSM-5. Optimum Si / Al ratio is necessary to provide high availability of Brønsted acid sites for adequate acidity and to maintain the distance between acid sites in order to limit coke-forming reactions [19].As Si / Al ratio decreases (increase the acidity of ZSM-5), the acid sites will be in close proximity to each other, resulting in secondary reactions for conversion of aromatic compounds to coke species [19]. Foster et al. [19] investigated the effect of ZSM-5 with varying Si / Al ratio on pyrolysis of glucose. This study showed that decreasing Si / Al ratio contributed formation of the additional acid sites for ZSM-5 with increasing coke yields. In a study of Carlson et al. [79], ZSM-5 (SiO 90003 2 90004 / Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004 = 15) promoted coke formation mostly on the catalyst surface giving the highest yield of 33% for coke (where the catalyst to biomass ratio was 19 ).It was also indicated that coke formation on the external pores of ZSM-5 did not significantly decrease the yield of aromatics but affected the selectivity toward light hydrocarbons, resulting lower yields for benzene and toluene, higher yields for naphthalene and indane. 90007 90008 3.4. General effects of catalysts on bio-oil 90009 90002 It is a known fact that catalysts have strong influence on pyrolysis in terms of product distribution, chemically homogenization, and enhancing fractional product yield, upgrading the pyrolysis products to better quality.Among catalysts, zeolites and metal oxides have been mainly investigated for biomass conversion and found to be effective in changing the composition of bio-oil by reducing the oxygenated compounds via deoxygenation reactions and enhancing the aromatic yield, thus producing a more homogeneous and stable organic fraction that can be upgraded to diesel grade fuels [30, 39]. To consider pyrolysis products, particularly bio-oil, for stationary fuel applications or heat / electricity generation, properties including acidity, viscosity, stability, and aromatic content of bio-oil should be evaluated [20].Therefore, the effects of catalysts to bio-oil must be addressed, as elaborately discussed below, in order for better understanding of biomass conversion. 90007 90014 3.4.1. Aromatic yield of bio-oil 90017 90002 Aromatic content of bio-oil is of high importance in terms of producing diesel grade fuels from biomass feedstock and biomass-originated waste materials. Among aromatics, the amount of benzene, toluene, ethyl-benzene, and xylenes (BTEX components) are the most significant feedstock materials to take into consideration for petroleum chemical industry [68, 87].90007 90002 Utilizing catalysts has been shown to increase the yield of bio-oil as well as the content of aromatics in bio-oil, which is a good indicator fuel quality. Kim et al. [87] studied catalytic pyrolysis of mandarin residues with high lignin content and found that using HZSM-5 of 23 and 80 acidity increased yield of monoaromatics from 3.4 to 36.0 and 41.0%, respectively. From the study of Zheng et al. [76], changing crystal size of ZSM-5 affected the aromatic yield and BTX selectivity so that smaller crystal size gave maximum aromatic yield and lowest BTX selectivity with the values ​​of 38.4 and 36.3%, respectively. However, larger crystal size exhibited lowest aromatic yield and highest BTX selectivity with the values ​​of 31.1 and 42.6%, respectively. Thus, smaller crystal size (200 nm) was found to be optimum for high aromatic yield. 90007 90002 Zhang et al. [83] compared the behavior of pyrolysis of aspen lignin under the effect of H-Y and HZSM-5 catalyst. At catalyst to feed ratio of 3: 1, production of aromatics exhibited a maximum value of 23% using HZSM-5 as catalyst, where the oxygen content of the aromatics decreased to about 4% and the HHV of the fraction was estimated to be approximately 46 MJ / kg, which is closer to that of gasoline and diesel.It was indicated that HZSM-5 was more effective than HY in converting phenolic compounds to aromatic hydrocarbons [83] due to its higher acidity and smaller pore size compared to HY [83]. Similarly, Pattiya et al. [75] studied ZSM-5 and two mesoporous materials including Al-MCM-41 and Al-MSU-F to investigate the fast pyrolysis of cassava rhizome. It was revealed that, of all the catalysts tested in the study, ZSM-5 gave the highest yield of aromatic hydrocarbons in order of toluene> benzene> 4,7-dimethylindane> 90011 p 90012 -ethyl-stryrene> 5-methylindane> xylenes .90007 90002 Aside from zeolites, the effect of metal oxides toward aromatization has been studied by researchers [7, 49, 91, 92]. From the results of the study of Ateş and Işıkdağ [91], using alumina as catalyst on corncob pyrolysis exhibited a trend to promote the formation of 1,1,3,3-tetramethylindane, benzene, and 1-methyl-4- (penylmethyl ) being most significant monoaromatic compounds. The formation of naphthalene, 1- (2-propenyl) -, a PAH compound, was found to be increased at moderate temperature using catalyst.Smets et al. [93] compared various catalysts including HZSM-5, γ-Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004, and Na 90003 2 90004 CO 90003 3 90004. Sodium carbonate was the most effective catalyst to increase the yield of aromatics following HZSM-5. Wang et al. [92] also conducted a comparative study for catalytic conversion of herb residues over alumina, ZSM-5 and Al-SBA-15, where alumina was found to give the highest bio-oil yield. Thus, the researchers of this study investigated the effect of alumina to the aromatic yield in terms of toluene, ethylbenzene, and 90011 p 90012 -xylene compounds and revealed that the percentage of aromatic fractions increased from 8.02 to 10.93%. 90007 90014 3.4.2. Acidity of bio-oil 90017 90002 The acidity of bio-oil is due to volatile acids, mainly carboxylic acids, that is, formic acid and acetic acid [58]. Phenolic compounds also contribute the acidity of bio-oil [20]. Determination of acidity in bio-oil is performed either by measuring pH value or total acid number. pH value is an indicator for evaluating the corrosiveness of bio-oil, whereas total acid number is used as a quality indicator for bio-oil utilization in co-processing of petroleum-refining facilities, and it relates to the level of acidic components in the oil [58].90007 90002 Studies have clearly shown that organic acids are reduced by catalysts [36], thereby, facilitating the utilization of bio-oil in fuel applications. The main question is to find the most suitable catalyst-biomass match, taking the process conditions into account for pyrolysis systems, in order to replace bio-oil with fossil fuel equivalents (such as diesel and gasoline). 90007 90002 Zabeti et al. [20] studied amorphous silica alumina modified with alkali or alkali earth metals such as Na, K, Cs, Mg, and Ca.It was concluded that among all the catalysts tested in the study, K / ASA was the most effective catalyst to reduce the carboxylic acids and carbonyl substituted-phenols content in bio-oil. Zhou et al. [17] investigated the effect of ZnO to physicochemical properties of rice husk bio-oil. pH value of catalytic bio-oil was recorded as 4.35, whereas noncatalytic bio-oil had 4.15 of pH value. Thus, this indicated the effect of ZnO catalyst toward reduction of acidic compounds in bio-oil. Abu Bakar and Titiloye [32] studied rice husk pyrolysis over various catalysts including ZSM-5, Al-MCM-41, Al-MSU-F, and (Brunei rice husk ash) BRHA.Catalysts have been shown to reduce the acid number from 55 mg / KOH to 39-47 mg / KOH, with ZSM-5and BRHA having the lowest value. Also, pH value of the catalytic rice husk bio-oil was recorded in the range of 2.7-3.0. Majority of acidic compounds were carboxylic acids, as acetic acid having the highest percentage. Mante and Agblevor [33] studied HZSM-5 as deoxygenating catalyst to convert hybrid poplar wood to biosyncrude oil. As indicated in the study, the pH value of light biosyncrude oil containing mainly aromatic hydrocarbons was increased from 2.60 to 4.05 due to HZSM-5. 90007 90014 3.4.3. Viscosity of bio-oil 90017 90002 High viscosity of bio-oil, compared to conventional fuels, is one of the drawbacks for its utilization in fuel applications. Most importantly, in case of bio-oil using combustion engines, high viscosity increases the droplet size from the injector spray thereby affecting the ignition of droplets [94]. Therefore, decreasing viscosity of bio-oil to improve fuel properties is essential. Studies revealed that use of catalysts improved fuel properties of bio-oil by decreasing viscosity [53, 95].90007 90002 Azargohar et al. conducted noncatalytic pyrolysis experiments for several biomass waste materials, and it was observed that the viscosity of bio-oil, ranging between 63 and 418 cP, was much more higher than that of crude petroleum oil (~ 23 cP), requiring a further upgrading process . It was also revealed that the reason of high viscosity was mainly due to lignin-derived hydrocarbons of large molecular weight [96]. However, in a study of Fan et al. on rape straw pyrolysis over nanocrystalline HZSM-5, the dynamic viscosity was reported to be 5.12 mm 90233 2 90234 s 90233 -1 90234 which was between the accepted limits for diesel fuel as indicated in the study [95]. Mante et al. investigated the hybrid poplar wood pyrolysis with the additive effect of Y-zeolite-based FCC catalyst to ZSM-5. FCC / ZSM-5 catalyst was found to be more effective than pure ZSM-5 in decreasing viscosity of bio-oil samples, indicating synergistic effect of hybrid catalyst, also suggesting that lower weight hydrocarbons was attributed to be formed by the presence of catalyst [ 53].Mante and Agblevor [33] studied hybrid poplar wood pyrolysis with the addition of ZSM-5. They classified the liquid fraction of pyrolysis product as LBS (low biosyncrude) oil containing mainly aromatic hydrocarbons and HBS (high biosyncrude) oil which consists of mainly phenols, methyl-substituted phenols, naphthalenes, benzenediols, and naphtalenol. The viscosity of LBS oil, which was significantly lower than that of non-catalytic bio-oil (285 cSt), was reported to be 4.90 cSt. It was suggested that lower viscosity was attributed to the catalytic cracking of levoglucosan and depolymerization of lignin-derived products [33].Shadangy and Mohanty conducted several studies using various biomass species over CaO, kaolin, and Al 90003 2 90004 O 90003 3 90004 [69, 97, 98]. Regardless of the biomass type, CaO was found to produce bio-oil of lower viscosity than that of noncatalytic bio-oil compared to other catalysts used for their studies. The viscosities of bio-oil obtained by using CaO were 0.019629 Pas [98] and 9.007 cP [69], indicating that utilizing catalyst favored a decrease in viscosity about 62 and 74.5%, respectively.Abu Bakar and Titiloye studied ZSM-5, Al-MCM-41, Al-MSU-F, and BRHA (Brunei rice husk ash) for the conversion of rice husk to bio-oil, and the viscosities of bio-oils were, as indicated, 1.55, 1.65, 1.49, and 1.57 cSt, respectively. All the catalysts used in the study decreased viscosity about 1.7-11.3% and slightly increased water content, which indicates that the catalysts favored dehydration reaction [32]. 90007 90014 3.4.4. Stability of bio-oil 90017 90002 Bio-oil is not as chemically or thermally stable as fossil fuels due to its high content of oxygenated compounds [94].At temperatures above 40 ° C or during long-term storage situations, the viscosity of bio-oil is reported to increase due to chemical reactions between components such as ketones and aldehydes, leading to formation of compounds of heavy molecular weight [20]. Thus, it is expected that bio-oil with lower content of carbonyl groups would be more stable. Utilizing catalysts, in order to facilitate transportation and storage of bio-oil, leads to enhanced cracking reactions of heavy molecules as well as removal of oxygenated compounds, thus leading to production of bio-oil with high stability [99].There is no standard method for determination of stability of bio-oil; however, several methods have been developed by researchers [100-102]. 90007 90002 In a study of Zabeti et al., Where Cs / ASA was found to be most effective catalyst to eliminate oxygenated compounds and increase aromatic yield compared all the catalysts tested in the study. The results of size exclusion chromatography (SEC) showed that bio-oil molecular weight shifted to higher weight regions after aging [20]. Mante and Agblevor conducted a stability test for the catalytic bio-oils (low and high biosyncrude oil) produced from hybrid poplar wood.The stability and aging tests were performed in a gravity oven at 90 ° C for 24 hours. Also, the viscosities of the bio-oil samples stored at 40 ° C for over 10 months were also measured, and the change in viscosity was found to be 5% for low biosyncrude oil and 27.9% for high bio syncrude oil. It was concluded that catalytic bio-oils were thermally stable and could be stored in room temperature for over 10 months without any significant increase in viscosity [33]. Nokkosmaki et al. studied pine sawdust pyrolysis with the addition of ZnO as catalyst.The stability test was performed at 80 ° C for 24 h and showed that viscosity was changed with the use of ZnO. The change in viscosity was 55%, which was significantly lower than that of noncatalytic bio-oil (129%) [34]. Duman et al. investigated the effect of methanol addition to the stability of bio-oil produced from safflower oil cake using FCC as catalyst. Addition of methanol reduced the viscosity. The viscosity was much lower at higher temperatures, thus indicating a more stable bio-oil. After aging test at 40 ° C for 168 h, the viscosity increased by 46.63 and 21.08% in case of raw bio-oil and methanol amended bio-oil, respectively [57]. 90007.